volume | PIER Journals

Abstract

There is no doubt that electrified vehicles are superseding internal combustion engine vehicles for road transportation. Among them, electric vehicles (EVs) have been identified as the greenest road transportation while hybrid EVs have been tagged as the super ultra-low emission vehicles. In this paper, the definition, classification, merits and demerits of electric and hybrid vehicles are first introduced. Then, after revealing their multidisciplinary technologies and development trends, the state-of-the-art electromagnetics research in electric and hybrid vehicles are discussed, with emphasis on electric motors for electric propulsion, electric machine systems for hybrid propulsion, wireless power transfer technologies for park-and-charge a well as move-and-charge, electromagnetic interference and compatibility issues in EVs, electromechanical flywheels for energy storage and magnetic sensors for EV operation. Meanwhile, the development trend of these research areas is revealed.

1. Chan, C. C. and K. T. Chau, Modern Electric Vehicle Technology, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2001.

2. Chau, K. T. and C. C. Chan, "Emerging energy-efficient technologies for hybrid electric vehicles," Proceedings of IEEE, Vol. 95, No. 4, 821-835, 2007.
doi:10.1109/JPROC.2006.890114

3. Yang, Z., F. Shang, I. P. Brown, and M. Krishnamurthy, "Comparative study of interior permanent magnet, induction, and switched reluctance motor drives for EV and HEV applications," IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrification, Vol. 1, No. 3, 245-254, 2015.
doi:10.1109/TTE.2015.2470092

4. Chau, K. T. and W. Li, "Overview of electric machines for electric and hybrid vehicles," International Journal of Vehicle Design, Vol. 64, No. 1, 46-71, 2014.
doi:10.1504/IJVD.2014.057775

5. Liu, C., K. T. Chau, J. Z. Jiang, and S. Niu, "Comparison of stator-permanent-magnet brushless machines," IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Vol. 44, No. 11, 4405-4408, 2008.
doi:10.1109/TMAG.2008.2002632

6. Wu, Z., Z. Q. Zhu, and H. Zhan, "Comparative analysis of partitioned stator flux reversal PM machines having fractional-slot nonoverlapping and integer-slot overlapping windings," IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 31, No. 2, 776-788, 2016.
doi:10.1109/TEC.2016.2525826

7. Yu, F., M. Cheng, and K. T. Chau, "Controllability and performance of a nine-Phase FSPM motor under severe five open-phase fault conditions," IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 31, No. 1, 323-332, 2016.
doi:10.1109/TEC.2015.2486521

8. Jahns, T., "Getting rare-earth magnets out of EV traction machines: A review of the many approaches being pursued to minimize or eliminate rare-earth magnets from future EV drivetrains," IEEE Electrification Magazine, Vol. 5, No. 1, 6-18, 2017.
doi:10.1109/MELE.2016.2644280

9. Lee, C. H. T., K. T. Chau, C. Liu, D. Wu, and S. Gao, "Quantitative comparison and analysis of magnetless machines with reluctance topologies," IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Vol. 49, No. 7, 3969-3972, 2013.
doi:10.1109/TMAG.2013.2242862

10. Lee, C. H. T., K. T. Chau, and C. Liu, "Design and analysis of an electronic-geared magnetless machine for electric vehicles," IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 63, No. 11, 6705-6714, 2016.
doi:10.1109/TIE.2016.2582793

11. Li, X., K. T. Chau, and M. Cheng, "Comparative analysis and experimental verification of an effective permanent-magnet vernier machine," IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Vol. 51, No. 7, 1-9, 8203009, 2015.

12. Li, W., T. W. Ching, and K. T. Chau, "A hybrid-excited vernier permanent-magnet machine using homopolar topology," IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, 10.1109/TMAG.2017.2707141, 2017.

13. Lee, C. H. T., K. T. Chau, C. Liu, T. W. Ching, and F. Li, "A high-torque magnetless axial-flux doubly salient machine for in-wheel direct drive applications," IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Vol. 50, No. 11, 1-5, 8202405, 2014.

14. Chau, K. T., Electric Vehicle Machines and Drives — Design, Analysis and Application, Wiley IEEE Press, Singapore, 2015.
doi:10.1002/9781118752555

15. Liu, C., K. T. Chau, and J. Z. Jiang, "A permanent-magnet hybrid brushless integrated startergenerator for hybrid electric vehicles," IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 57, No. 12, 4055-4064, 2010.
doi:10.1109/TIE.2010.2044128

16. Lee, C. H. T., C. Liu, and K. T. Chau, "A magnetless axial-flux machine for range-extended electric vehicle," Energies, Vol. 7, No. 3, 1483-1499, 2014.
doi:10.3390/en7031483

17. Kulan, M. C., N. J. Baker, and J. D. Widmer, "Design and analysis of compressed windings for a permanent magnet integrated starter generator," IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 53, No. 4, 3371-3378, 2017.
doi:10.1109/TIA.2017.2681976

18. Kamiya, M., "Development of traction drive motors for the Toyota hybrid system," IEEJ Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 126, No. 4, 473-479, 2006.
doi:10.1541/ieejias.126.473

19. Hoeijmakers, M. and J. Ferreira, "The electric variable transmission," IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 42, No. 4, 1092-1100, 2006.
doi:10.1109/TIA.2006.877736

20. Mo, L., L. Quan, X. Zhu, Y. Chen, H. Qiu, and K. T. Chau, "Comparison and analysis of fluxswitching permanent-magnet double-rotor machine with 4QT used for HEV," IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Vol. 50, No. 11, 1-4, 8205804, 2014.
doi:10.1109/TMAG.2014.2331313

21. Cheng, M., L. Sun, G. Buja, and L. Song, "Advanced electrical machines and machine-based systems for electric and hybrid vehicles," Energies, Vol. 8, No. 9, 9541-9564, 2015.
doi:10.3390/en8099541

22. Jian, L. and K.-T. Chau, "Design and analysis of a magnetic-geared electronic-continuously variable transmission system using finite element method," Progress In Electromagnetics Research, Vol. 107, 47-61, 2010.
doi:10.2528/PIER10062806

23. Atallah, K., J. Wang, S. D. Calverley, and S. Duggan, "Design and operation of a magnetic continuously variable transmission," IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 48, No. 4, 1288-1295, 2012.
doi:10.1109/TIA.2012.2199451

24. Chau, K. T., Energy Systems for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, The IET, London, 2016.

25. Wang, C. S., O. H. Stielau, and G. A. Covic, "Design considerations for a contactless electric vehicle battery charger," IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 52, No. 5, 1308-1314, 2005.
doi:10.1109/TIE.2005.855672

26. Qiu, C., K. T. Chau, T. W. Ching, and C. Liu, "Overview of wireless charging technologies for electric vehicles," Journal of Asian Electric Vehicles, Vol. 12, No. 1, 1679-1685, 2014.
doi:10.4130/jaev.12.1679

27. Bi, Z., T. Kan, C. C. Mi, Y. Zhang, Z. Zhao, and G. A. Keoleian, "A review of wireless power transfer for electric vehicles: Prospects to enhance sustainable mobility," Applied Energy, Vol. 179, No. 1, 413-425, 2016.
doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.07.003

28. Zheng, C., J. S. Lai, R. Chen, W. E. Faraci, Z. U. Zahid, B. Gu, L. Zhang, G. Lisi, and D. Anderson, "High efficiency contactless power transfer system for electric vehicle battery charging application," IEEE Journal of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics, Vol. 3, No. 1, 65-74, 2015.
doi:10.1109/JESTPE.2014.2339279

29. Qiu, C., K. T. Chau, C. Liu, T. W. Ching, and Z. Zhang, "Modular inductive power transmission system for high misalignment electric vehicle application," Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 117, No. 17, 1-4, 17B52, 2015.

30. Zaheer, A., H. Hao, G. A. Covic, and D. Kacprzak, "Investigation of multiple decoupled coil primary pad topologies in lumped IPT systems for interoperable electric vehicle charging," IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 30, No. 4, 1937-1955, 2015.
doi:10.1109/TPEL.2014.2329693

31. Liu, C., K. T. Chau, D. Wu, and S. Gao, "Opportunities and challenges of vehicle-to-home, vehicleto-vehicle, and vehicle-to-grid technologies," Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 101, No. 11, 2409-2427, 2013.
doi:10.1109/JPROC.2013.2271951

32. Madawala, U. K. and D. J. Thrimawithana, "A bidirectional inductive power interface for electric vehicles in V2G systems," IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 58, No. 10, 4789-4796, 2011.
doi:10.1109/TIE.2011.2114312

33. Jiang, C., K. T. Chau, C. Liu, and C. H. Lee, "An overview of resonant circuits for wireless power transfer," Energies, Vol. 10, No. 7, 1-20, 894, 2017.

34. Zhou, Y., X. Zhu, W. Lin, and B. Wang, "Study of wireless power and information transmission technology based on the triangular current waveform," IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, 2017, DOI: 10.1109/TPEL.2017.2678503.

35. Lee, K., Z. Pantic, and S. M. Lukic, "Reflexive field containment in dynamic inductive power transfer systems," IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 29, No. 9, 4592-4602, 2014.
doi:10.1109/TPEL.2013.2287262

36. Mi, C. C., G. Buja, S. Y. Choi, and C. T. Rim, "Modern advances in wireless power transfer systems for roadway powered electric vehicles," IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 63, No. 10, 6533-6545, 2016.
doi:10.1109/TIE.2016.2574993

37. Choi, S. Y., B. W. Gu, S. Y. Jeong, and C. T. Rim, "Advances in wireless power transfer systems for roadway-powered electric vehicles," IEEE Journal of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics, Vol. 3, No. 1, 18-36, 2015.
doi:10.1109/JESTPE.2014.2343674

38. Zhang, Z. and K. T. Chau, "Homogeneous wireless power transfer for move-and-charge," IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 30, No. 11, 6213-6220, 2015.
doi:10.1109/TPEL.2015.2414453

39. Zhang, Z., K. T. Chau, C. Qiu, and C. Liu, "Energy encryption for wireless power transfer," IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 30, No. 9, 5237-5246, 2015.
doi:10.1109/TPEL.2014.2363686

40. Silva, F. and M. Aragon, "Electromagnetic interferences from electric/hybrid vehicles," URSI General Assembly and Scientific Symposium, 1-4, 2011.

41. Guttowski, S., S. Weber, E. Hoene, W. John, and H. Reichl, "EMC issues in cars with electric drives," IEEE Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility, 777-782, 2003.

42. Reuter, M., S. Tenbohlen, and W. Kohler, "The influence of network impedance on conducted disturbances within the high-voltage traction harness of electric vehicles," IEEE Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility, Vol. 56, No. 1, 35-43, 2014.
doi:10.1109/TEMC.2013.2273564

43. Mutoh, N. and M. Kanesaki, "A suitable method for ecovehicles to control surge voltage occurring at motor terminals connected to PWM inverters and to control induced EMI noise," IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, Vol. 57, No. 4, 2089-2098, 2008.
doi:10.1109/TVT.2007.912174

44. Hamza, D., M. Pahlevaninezhad, and P. K. Jain, "Implementation of a novel digital active EMI technique in a DSP-based DC-DC digital controller used in electric vehicle (EV)," IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 28, No. 7, 3126-3137, 2013.
doi:10.1109/TPEL.2012.2223764

45. Han, D., C. T. Morris, W. Lee, and B. Sarlioglu, "A case study on common mode electromagnetic interference characteristics of GaN HEMT and Si MOSFET power converters for EV/HEVs," IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrification, Vol. 3, No. 1, 168-179, 2017.
doi:10.1109/TTE.2016.2622005

46. Christ, A., M. G. Douglas, J. M. Roman, E. B. Cooper, A. P. Sample, B. H. Waters, J. R. Smith, and N. Kuster, "Evaluation of wireless resonant power transfer systems with human electromagnetic exposure limits," IEEE Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility, Vol. 55, No. 2, 265-274, 2013.

47. Chen, X., A. E. Umenei, D. W. Baarman, N. Chavannes, V. D. Santis, J. R. Mosig, and N. Kuster, "Human exposure to close-range resonant wireless power transfer systems as a function of design parameters," IEEE Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility, Vol. 56, No. 5, 1027-1034, 2014.
doi:10.1109/TEMC.2014.2308013

48. Ding, P., L. Bernard, L. Pichon, and A. Razek, "Evaluation of electromagnetic fields in human body exposed to wireless inductive charging system," IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Vol. 50, No. 2, 1-4, 7025704, 2014.
doi:10.1109/TMAG.2013.2273366

49. Kim, S., H. H. Park, J. Kim, J. Kim, and S. Ahn, "Design and analysis of a resonant reactive shield for a wireless power electric vehicle," IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 62, No. 4, 1057-1066, 2014.
doi:10.1109/TMTT.2014.2305404

50. Choi, S. Y., B. W. Gu, S. W. Lee, W. Y. Lee, J. Huh, and C. T. Rim, "Generalized active EMF cancel methods for wireless electric vehicles," IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 29, No. 11, 5770-5783, 2014.
doi:10.1109/TPEL.2013.2295094

51. Hofmann, H. and S. R. Sanders, "Synchronous reluctance motor/alternator for flywheel energy storage systems," IEEE Power Electronics in Transportation Workshop, 199-206, 1996.
doi:10.1109/PET.1996.565929

52. Tsao, P., M. Senesky, and S. Sanders, "An integrated flywheel energy storage system with homopolar inductor motor/generator and high-frequency drive," IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 39, No. 6, 1710-1725, 2003.
doi:10.1109/TIA.2003.818992

53. Severson, E., R. Nilssen, T. Undeland, and N. Mohan, "Outer-rotor AC homopolar motors for flywheel energy storage," IET International Conference on Power Electronics, Machines and Drives, 1-6, 2014.

54. Bachovchin, K. D., J. F. Hoburg, and R. F. Post, "Stable levitation of a passive magnetic bearing," IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Vol. 49, No. 1, 609-617, 2013.
doi:10.1109/TMAG.2012.2209123

55. Khoo, W. K. S., K. Kalita, S. D. Garvey, R. J. Hill-Cottingham, D. Rodger, and J. F. Eastham, "Active axial-magnetomotive force parallel-airgap serial flux magnetic bearings," IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Vol. 46, No. 7, 2596-2602, 2010.
doi:10.1109/TMAG.2010.2042456

56. Sun, B., T. Dragicevic, F. D. Freijedo, J. C. Vasquez, and J. M. Guerrero, "A control algorithm for electric vehicle fast charging stations equipped with flywheel energy storage systems," IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 31, No. 9, 6674-6685, 2016.
doi:10.1109/TPEL.2015.2500962

57. Li, W., K. T. Chau, T. W. Ching, Y. Wang, and M. Chen, "Design of a high-speed superconducting bearingless machine for flywheel energy storage systems," IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity, Vol. 25, No. 3, 1-4, 5700204, 2015.

58. Mukoyama, S., K. Nakao, H. Sakamoto, T. Matsuoka, K. Nagashima, M. Ogata, T. Yamashita, Y. Miyazaki, K. Miyazaki, T. Maeda, and H. Shimizu, "Development of superconducting magnetic bearing for 300 kW flywheel energy storage system," IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity, Vol. 27, No. 4, 1-4, 3600804, 2017.
doi:10.1109/TASC.2017.2652327

59. Lenz, J. and S. Edelstein, "Magnetic sensors and their applications," IEEE Sensors Journal, Vol. 6, No. 3, 631-649, 2006.
doi:10.1109/JSEN.2006.874493

60. Cheung, S. Y., S. Coleri, B. Dundar, S. Ganesh, C. W. Tan, and P. Varaiya, "Traffic measurement and vehicle classification with a single magnetic sensor," California PATH Program, University of California, Berkeley, UCB-ITS-PWP-2004-7, 2004.

61. Zhu, H. and F. Yu, "A cross-correlation technique for vehicle detections in wireless magnetic sensor network roadside sensors for vehicle counting, classification, and speed measurement," IEEE Sensors Journal, Vol. 16, No. 11, 4484-4494, 2016.
doi:10.1109/JSEN.2016.2523601

62. Sifuentes, E., O. Casas, and R. Pallas-Areny, "Wireless magnetic sensor node for vehicle detection with optical wake-up," IEEE Sensors Journal, Vol. 11, No. 8, 1669-1676, 2011.
doi:10.1109/JSEN.2010.2103937

63. Wei, Q. and B. Yang, "Adaptable vehicle detection and speed estimation for changeable urban traffic with anisotropic magnetoresistive sensors," IEEE Sensors Journal, Vol. 17, No. 7, 2021-2028, 2017.
doi:10.1109/JSEN.2017.2654501

64. Brauhn, T. J., M. Sheng, B. A. Dow, H. Nogawa, and R. D. Lorenz, "Module-integrated GMRbased current sensing for closed-loop control of a motor drive," IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 53, No. 1, 222-231, 2017.
doi:10.1109/TIA.2016.2614771

65. Niu, H. and R. D. Lorenz, "Sensing power MOSFET junction temperature using gate drive turn-on current transient properties," IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 52, No. 2, 1677-1687, 2016.
doi:10.1109/TIA.2015.2497202

66. Liu, Z., G. Tian, W. Cao, X. Dai, B. Shaw, and R. Lambert, "Non-invasive load monitoring of induction motor drives using magnetic flux sensors," IET Power Electronics, Vol. 16, No. 2, 189-195, 2017.
doi:10.1049/iet-pel.2016.0304

Prof. Kwok-Tong Chau

Dr. Chaoqiang Jiang

Dr. Wei Han

Dr. Christopher H. T. Lee