volume | PIER Journals

Abstract

Several computational imaging systems have recently been proposed at microwave and millimeter-wave frequencies enabling a fast and low cost reconstruction of the scattering strength of a scene. The quality of the reconstructed images is directly linked to the degrees of freedom of the system which are the number of uncorrelated radiated patterns that sequentially sample the scene. Frequency diverse antennas such as leaky chaotic cavities and metamaterial apertures take advantage of the spectral decorrelation of transmitted speckle patterns that stems from the reverberation within a medium. We present a reconfigurable chaotic cavity for which the boundary conditions can be tuned by exciting plasma elements, here commercial fluorescent lamps. The interaction of electromagnetic waves with a cold plasma is strongly modified as it is ionized. Instead of being transparent to incident waves, it behaves theoretically as a metallic material. The independent states of the cavity obtained using a differential approach further enhance the degrees of freedom. This relaxes the need of a cavity with a large bandwidth and/or high quality factor. Experimental results validate the use of fluorescent lamps, and its limitations are discussed. Images of various metallic objects are provided to illustrate the potentialities of this promising solution.

1. Duarte, M. F., M. A. Davenport, D. Takhar, J. N. Laska, T. Sun, K. E. Kelly, and R. G. Baraniuk, "Single-pixel imaging via compressive sampling," IEEE Signal Process. Lett., Vol. 25, 83, 2008.
doi:10.1109/MSP.2007.914730 Google Scholar

2. Chan, W. L., K. Charan, D. Takhar, K. F. Kelly, R. G. Baraniuk, and D. M. Mittleman, "A single-pixel terahertz imaging system based on compressed sensing," Appl. Phys. Lett., Vol. 93, 121105, 2008.
doi:10.1063/1.2989126 Google Scholar

3. Katz, O., Y. Bromberg, and Y. Silberberg, "Compressive ghost imaging," Appl. Phys. Lett., Vol. 95, 131110, 2009.
doi:10.1063/1.3238296 Google Scholar

4. Sun, B., M. P. Edgar, R. Bowman, L. E. Vittert, S. Welsh, A. Bowman, and M. Padgett, "3D computational imaging with single-pixel detectors," Science, Vol. 340, 844-847, 2013.
doi:10.1126/science.1234454 Google Scholar

5. Hunt, J., T. Driscoll, A. Mrozack, G. Lipworth, M. Reynolds, D. Brady, and D. R. Smith, "Metamaterial apertures for computational imaging," Science, Vol. 339, 310-313, 2013.
doi:10.1126/science.1230054 Google Scholar

6. Katz, O., P. Heidmann, M. Fink, and S. Gigan, "Non-invasive single-shot imaging through scattering layers and around corners via speckle correlations," Nat. Photonics, Vol. 8, 784-790, 2014.
doi:10.1038/nphoton.2014.189 Google Scholar

7. Liutkus, A., D. Martina, S. Popoff, G. Chardon, O. Katz, G. Lerosey, S. Gigan, L. Daudet, and I. Carron, "Imaging with nature: Compressive imaging using a multiply scattering medium," Sci. Rep., Vol. 4, Article No. 5552, 2014.
doi:10.1038/srep05552 Google Scholar

8. Watts, C. M., D. Shrekenhamer, J. Montoya, G. Lipworth, J. Hunt, T. Sleasman, S. Krishna, D. R. Smith, and W. J. Padilla, "Terahertz compressive imaging with metamaterial spatial light modulators," Nat. Photonics, Vol. 8, 605-609, 2014.
doi:10.1038/nphoton.2014.139 Google Scholar

9. Sheen, D. M., D. L. McMakin, and T. E. Hall, "Three-dimensional millimeter-wave imaging for concealed weapon detection," IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech., Vol. 49, 1581-1592, 2001.
doi:10.1109/22.942570 Google Scholar

10. Chen, H.-M., S. Lee, R. M. Rao, M.-A. Slamani, and P. K. Varshney, "Imaging for concealed weapon detection: A tutorial overview of development in imaging sensors and processing," IEEE Signal Process. Mag., Vol. 22, 52-61, 2005.
doi:10.1109/MSP.2005.1406480 Google Scholar

11. Baranoski, E. J., "Through-wall imaging: Historical perspective and future directions," J. Franklin Inst., Vol. 345, 556-569, 2008.
doi:10.1016/j.jfranklin.2008.01.005 Google Scholar

12. Fear, E. C., X. Li, S. C. Hagness, and M. A. Stuchly, "Confocal microwave imaging for breast cancer detection: Localization of tumors in three dimensions," IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., Vol. 49, 812-822, 2002.
doi:10.1109/TBME.2002.800759 Google Scholar

13. Nikolova, N. K., "Microwave imaging for breast cancer," IEEE Microw. Mag., Vol. 12, 78-94, 2011.
doi:10.1109/MMM.2011.942702 Google Scholar

14. Li, J. and P. Stoica, MIMO Radar Signal Processing, Wiley Online Library, 2008.
doi:10.1002/9780470391488

15. Montaldo, G., D. Palacio, M. Tanter, and M. Fink, "Building three-dimensional images using a time-reversal chaotic cavity," IEEE Trans. Ultrason., Ferroelect., Freq. Control, Vol. 52, 1489-1497, 2005.
doi:10.1109/TUFFC.2005.1516021 Google Scholar

16. Yurduseven, O., V. R. Gowda, J. N. Gollub, and D. R. Smith, "Printed aperiodic cavity for computational and microwave imaging," IEEE Microw. Wirel. Compon. Lett., Vol. 26, 367-369, 2016.
doi:10.1109/LMWC.2016.2548443 Google Scholar

17. Sleasman, T., M. F. Imani, J. N. Gollub, and D. R. Smith, "Microwave imaging using a disordered cavity with a dynamically tunable impedance surface," Phys. Rev. Applied, Vol. 6, 054019, 2016.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevApplied.6.054019 Google Scholar

18. Fromenteze, T., O. Yurduseven, M. F. Imani, J. Gollub, C. Decroze, D. Carsenat, and D. R. Smith, "Computational imaging using a mode-mixing cavity at microwave frequencies," Appl. Phys. Lett., Vol. 106, 194104, 2015.
doi:10.1063/1.4921081 Google Scholar

19. Tondo Yoya, A. C., B. Fuchs, and M. Davy, "Computational passive imaging of thermal sources with a leaky chaotic cavity," Appl. Phys. Lett., Vol. 111, 193501, Nov. 6, 2017.
doi:10.1063/1.4996964 Google Scholar

20. Zvolensky, T., J. N. Gollub, D. L. Marks, and D. R. Smith, "Design and analysis of a W-band metasurface-based computational imaging system," IEEE Access, 2017. Google Scholar

21. Gollub, J. N., O. Yurduseven, K. P. Trofatter, D. Arnitz, M. F. Imani, T. Sleasman, M. Boyarsky, A. Rose, A. Pedross-Engel, H. Odabasi, T. Zvolensky, G. Lipworth, D. Brady, D. L. Marks, M. S. Reynolds, and D. R. Smith, "Large metasurface aperture for millimeter wave computational imaging at the human-scale," Sci. Rep., Vol. 7, 42650, 2017.
doi:10.1038/srep42650 Google Scholar

22. Fromenteze, T., X. Liu, M. Boyarsky, J. Gollub, and D. R. Smith, "Phaseless computational imaging with a radiating metasurface," Opt. Express, Vol. 24, 16760-16776, Jul. 25, 2016.
doi:10.1364/OE.24.016760 Google Scholar

23. Sleasman, T., M. F. Imani, J. N. Gollub, and D. R. Smith, "Dynamic metamaterial aperture for microwave imaging," Appl. Phys. Lett., Vol. 107, 204104, Nov. 16, 2015.
doi:10.1063/1.4935941 Google Scholar

24. Yurduseven, O., J. N. Gollub, D. L. Marks, and D. R. Smith, "Frequency-diverse microwave imaging using planar Mills-Cross cavity apertures," Opt. Express, Vol. 24, 8907-8925, Apr. 18, 2016.
doi:10.1364/OE.24.008907 Google Scholar

25. Marks, D. L., J. Gollub, and D. R. Smith, "Spatially resolving antenna arrays using frequency diversity," JOSA A, Vol. 33, 899-912, 2016.
doi:10.1364/JOSAA.33.000899 Google Scholar

26. Yurduseven, O., V. R. Gowda, J. N. Gollub, and D. R. Smith, "Multistatic microwave imaging with arrays of planar cavities," IET Microwaves, Antennas & Propagation, Vol. 10, 1174-1181, 2016.
doi:10.1049/iet-map.2015.0836 Google Scholar

27. Stockmann, H. J., Quantum Chaos: An Introduction, Cambridge University Press, 1999.
doi:10.1017/CBO9780511524622

28. Kuhl, U., O. Legrand, and F. Mortessagne, "Microwave experiments using open chaotic cavities in the realm of the effective Hamiltonian formalism," Fortschritte der Physik, Vol. 61, 404-419, 2013.
doi:10.1002/prop.201200101 Google Scholar

29. Gradoni, G., J.-H. Yeh, B. Xiao, T. M. Antonsen, S. M. Anlage, and E. Ott, "Predicting the statistics of wave transport through chaotic cavities by the random coupling model: A review and recent progress," Wave Motion, Vol. 51, 606-621, 2014.
doi:10.1016/j.wavemoti.2014.02.003 Google Scholar

30. Dietz, B. and A. Richter, "Quantum and wave dynamical chaos in superconducting microwave billiards," Chaos, Vol. 25, 097601, 2015.
doi:10.1063/1.4915527 Google Scholar

31. Gros, J. B., U. Kuhl, O. Legrand, and F. Mortessagne, "Lossy chaotic electromagnetic reverberation chambers: Universal statistical behavior of the vectorial field," Phys. Rev. E, Vol. 93, 032108, 2016.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.93.032108 Google Scholar

32. Fromenteze, T., O. Yurduseven, M. Boyarsky, J. Gollub, D. L. Marks, and D. R. Smith, "Computational polarimetric microwave imaging," Opt. Express, Vol. 25, 27488-27505, 2017.
doi:10.1364/OE.25.027488 Google Scholar

33. Draeger, C. and M. Fink, "One-channel time reversal of elastic waves in a chaotic 2D-silicon cavity," Phys. Rev. Lett., Vol. 79, 407-410, 1997.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.79.407 Google Scholar

34. Besnier, P. and B. Demoulin, Electromagnetic Reverberation Chambers, John Wiley & Sons, 2013.

35. Kaina, N., M. Dupre, M. Fink, and G. Lerosey, "Hybridized resonances to design tunable binary phase metasurface unit cells," Opt. Express, Vol. 22, 18881-18888, Aug. 11, 2014.
doi:10.1364/OE.22.018881 Google Scholar

36. Kaina, N., M. Dupre, G. Lerosey, and M. Fink, "Shaping complex microwave fields in reverberating media with binary tunable metasurfaces," Sci. Rep., Vol. 4, 6693, 2014.
doi:10.1038/srep06693 Google Scholar

37. Dupre, M., P. del Hougne, M. Fink, F. Lemoult, and G. Lerosey, "Wave-field shaping in cavities: Waves trapped in a box with controllable boundaries," Phys. Rev. Lett., Vol. 115, 017701, 2015.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.115.017701 Google Scholar

38. Lieberman, M. A. and A. J. Lichtenberg, Principles of Plasma Discharges and Materials Processing, John Wiley & Sons, 2005.
doi:10.1002/0471724254

39. Sokoloff, J., O. Pascal, T. Callegari, R. Pascaud, F. Pizarro, L. Liard, J. Lo, and A. Kallel, "Non-thermal plasma potentialities for microwave device reconfigurability," C. R. Phys., Vol. 15, 468-478, May 1, 2014.
doi:10.1016/j.crhy.2014.02.006 Google Scholar

40. Borg, G. G., J. H. Harris, D. G. Miljak, and N. M. Martin, "Application of plasma columns to radiofrequency antennas," Appl. Phys. Lett., Vol. 74, 3272-3274, May 31, 1999.
doi:10.1063/1.123317 Google Scholar

41. Osamu, S. and T. Kunihide, "Plasmas as metamaterials: A review," Plasma Sources Sci. Technol., Vol. 21, 013001, 2012.
doi:10.1088/0963-0252/21/1/013001 Google Scholar

42. Lo, J., J. Sokoloff, T. Callegari, and J. P. Boeuf, "Reconfigurable electromagnetic band gap device using plasma as a localized tunable defect," Appl. Phys. Lett., Vol. 96, 251501, Jun. 21, 2010.
doi:10.1063/1.3454778 Google Scholar

43. Alu, A., F. Bilotti, N. Engheta, and L. Vegni, "Subwavelength, compact, resonant patch antennas loaded with metamaterials," IEEE Trans. Ant. Prop., Vol. 55, 13-25, 2007.
doi:10.1109/TAP.2006.888401 Google Scholar

44. Bahl, I. and K. Gupta, "A leaky-wave antenna using an artificial dielectric medium," IEEE Trans. Ant. Prop., Vol. 22, 119-122, 1974.
doi:10.1109/TAP.1974.1140715 Google Scholar

45. Lovat, G., P. Burghignoli, F. Capolino, D. R. Jackson, and D. R. Wilton, "Analysis of directive radiation from a line source in a metamaterial slab with low permittivity," IEEE Trans. Ant. Prop., Vol. 54, 1017-1030, 2006.
doi:10.1109/TAP.2006.869925 Google Scholar

46. Laquerbe, V., R. Pascaud, T. Callegari, L. Liard, and O. Pascal, "Frequency-agile microstrip resonator using DC plasma discharge," Electron. Lett., Vol. 53, 415-417, 2017.
doi:10.1049/el.2017.0261 Google Scholar

47. Barro, O. A., O. Lafond, and H. Himdi, "Reconfigurable antennas radiations using plasma Faraday cage," 2015 International Conference on Electromagnetics in Advanced Applications (ICEAA), 545-548, 2015.
doi:10.1109/ICEAA.2015.7297175 Google Scholar

48. Arnaut, L. R., "Statistics of the quality factor of a rectangular reverberation chamber," IEEE Trans. Elec. Comp., Vol. 45, 61-76, 2003. Google Scholar

49. Davy, M., Z. Shi, and A. Z. Genack, "Focusing through random media: Eigenchannel participation number and intensity correlation," Phys. Rev. B, Vol. 85, 035105, 2012.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.85.035105 Google Scholar

50. Davy, M., Z. Shi, J. Wang, and A. Z. Genack, "Transmission statistics and focusing in single disordered samples," Opt. Express, Vol. 21, 10367-10375, 2013.
doi:10.1364/OE.21.010367 Google Scholar

51. Hsu, C. W., S. F. Liew, A. Goetschy, H. Cao, and A. D. Stone, "Correlation-enhanced control of wave focusing in disordered media," Nat. Phys., Vol. 13, 497, 2017.
doi:10.1038/nphys4036 Google Scholar

52. Del Hougne, P., M. F. Imani, M. Fink, D. R. Smith, and G. Lerosey, "Precise localization of multiple noncooperative objects in a disordered cavity by wave front shaping," Phys. Rev. Lett., Vol. 121, 063901, 2018.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.121.063901 Google Scholar

53. Rudin, L. I., S. Osher, and E. Fatemi, "Nonlinear total variation based noise removal algorithms," Physica D, Vol. 60, 259-268, 1992.
doi:10.1016/0167-2789(92)90242-F Google Scholar

54. Cooper, K. B. and G. Chattopadhyay, "Submillimeter-wave radar: Solid-state system design and applications," IEEE Microw. Mag., Vol. 15, 51-67, 2014.
doi:10.1109/MMM.2014.2356092 Google Scholar

55. Yurduseven, O., M. F. Imani, H. Odabasi, J. Gollub, G. Lipworth, A. Rose, and D. R. Smith, "Resolution of the frequency diverse metamaterial aperture imager," Progress In Electromagnetics Research, Vol. 150, 97-107, 2015.
doi:10.2528/PIER14113002 Google Scholar

Dr. Ariel Christopher Tondo Yoya

Dr. Benjamin Fuchs

Dr. Cecile Leconte

Mr. Matthieu Davy